Dr. Stamen Grigorov special : today google showing a doodle to celebrate 142th birthday of Dr Stamen Grigorov . he was the Bulgarian physician , it means from Bulgaria , he born in Studen Izvor city of Bulgaria on 27 October 1878 , in the age of 67 he died in sofia city Bulgaria .
he was a famous microbiologist also with physician skills. he was the first person in the world who identified the needy bacterium for fermentation of yogurt , that was big opportunity or success of him. he did his best contribution in development of the first tuberculosis vaccine in the world , after his contribution and other efforts of other scientists , we won the victory on tuberculosis on world level. that is why google today remembering him on his 142th birth anniversary , on this occasion of his birthday we should thankful to him for his contribution in the field of medical or science.
Digital Electronics
Number System and boolean algebra
Number system and boolean algebra = Any system of naming or reoresenting numbers, as the decimal system or the binary system, is called system, boolean algebra is the algebra of truth values 0 and 1 or equivalently of subsets of a given set.
A system is a combination of active and passive devices designed to perform a specific function. generally systems are classified into major categories
- Analog systems
- Digital systems
Analog Systems
Analog systems are those systems which process an analog signal. in an analog system, the quantities can vary over a continuous range of values.
Example the amplitude of the output signal to the amplifier can have any value between zero and continuous maximum limit.
Digital systems
A digital system manipulates discrete quantities of information that are represented in binary form.
Example Digital computer, calculator, digital video and audio equipments etc.
Advantages of Digital system Over Analog System
- information storage is easy in digital system.
- Digital systems are generally easier to design.
- Accuracy and precision of digital systems are greater as compared to analog systems.
- These circuits are less affected by noise.
- More digital circuitry can be on IC chips.
- Digital systems represent and manipulate discrete elements of information.
Number Systems
A number is a collection of sysbols. in any number system, there is an ordered set of symbols known as digits. there are two types of number systems
- positional number system
- non-positional number system
in positional number system, the position of each digit of a number has some positional weight. in a non-positional number system, a digit of a number does not indicate any significance in position and weight.
the number is represented as
(Sn – 1 sn – 2 ……..s1so s-1 s-2……s – m)b
where, b = radix or base of the number system
n = number of digits in the integer part
m = number of digits in fractional part
SN-1 = Most significant bit (MSB)
S – M = Least significant bit (LSB)
On the basis of number of symbols and radix, number systems are classified as
- Decimal number system
- Binary number system
- Octal number system
- Hexadecimal number system
Decimal Number System
the decimal number system has 10 symbols, so the radix or base of this system is 10. the ten symbols are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8, and 9 and the radix point is known as the decimal point. the digits at the left most side of the decimal point constitute the integer part and the right side digit of the decimal point constitute the fractional part. the value of a digit is function of its position.
Binary Number System
In binary number System, the total number of symbols are two (0,1), so base is 2 and the radix point is known as the binary point. the symbols 0, 1 known as bit. the binary and decimal number systems are both positional notation number systems. the format used in binary number system is
………..222120 2-12-2……..
Binary to Decimal Conversion
Example 1. convert the binary number (110101)2 to decimal.
Sol. Multiply each binary digit by the appropriate weight factor.
thus, (110101)2 = 1 x 20 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 22 + 0 x 23 + 1 x 24 + 1 x 25
= 1 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 16 + 32 = 53
(110101)2 = (53)10
Do you know ?
here, subscript 2 is used to indicate that 110101 is a base 2 number. a capital letter B can also be used i.e., 110101 B.
Example 2. Convert the fractional binary number 0.1011 into decimal.
Sol. first determine the weight of each bit and then sum the weights times the bit.
[0.1 0 1]2 = 1 x 0.5 + 0 x 0.25 + 1 x 0.125 + 1 x 0.0625
(0.1 0 1 1)2 = (0.6875)10
Another method of evaluating a binary fraction
Considering the above example
- If we neglect the binary point, the value of 10112 is 1110 in decimal.
- With four bits, there are 24 = 16 possible combinations.
- Dividing we obtain 11/16 = 0.687510.
Example 3 . Determine the decimal value 11101.0112.
Sol. [1 1 1 0 1. 0 1 1]2
4 3 2 1 0 – 1 -2 -3
= 1 x 24 + 1 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 + 0 x 2-1 + 1 x 2-1 + 1 x 2-3
(11101.011)2 = (29.375)10
Using the alternate method to evaluate the fraction. we have 3/8 = 0.37510.
Decimal to Binary Conversion
Sum of weights method one way to find binary equivalent is as follows
For example 23 22 21 20
9 = 8 + 1 = 23 + 20 = 1 0 0 1
Example 4. Convert the following decimal numbers to binary :
(a) 12
(b) 25
(c) 58
Sol. (a) 1210 = 8 + 4 = 23 + 22
23/1 22/1 21/0 20/0
(12)10 = (1100)2
(b) (25)10 = 16 + 8 + 1 = 24 + 23 + 20
24/1 23/1 22/0 21/1 20/1
(25)10 = 11001)2
(c) (58)10 = 32 + 16 + 8 + 2 =25 + 24 + 23 + 21
25/1 24/1 23/1 22/1 21/1 20/1
(58)10 = (111010)2
Repeated division method
A more systematic method of converting from decimal to binary is the repeated division by 2 process.
For example
Convert the decimal number 12 to binary.
Convert decimal fractions to binary
- the sum of weights method can be applied to fractional decimal number.
e.g., 0.62510 = 0.5 + 0.125 = 2-1 + 2-3 = 0.1012
- decimal fractions can be converted to binary by repeated multiplication by 2 method.
e.g., for converting 0.312510 into binary we will follow the following steps
Step 1. 0.3125 x 2 = 0.625
Step 2. 0.625 x 2 = 1.25
0.25 x 2 = 0.50
0.25 x 2 = 1.00
0.01012
thus, (0.3125)10 = (0.0101)2
Octal Numbers
The number system with base 8 is known as the octal numbersyste. it has eight possible digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7, in octal number system, radix point is known as octal point.
it is also a positional number system: the weight of a digit is defined by its position with base 8.
Octal to Decimal conversion
The evaluation of an octal number in terms of its decimal equation is accomplished by multiplying each digit by its weight and summing the products.
For example
For converting (2154)8 into decimal procedure is
21548 = 4 x 80 + 5 x 81 + 1 x 83 = 113210
Decimal to Octal conversion
(a) Integer part
A method of converting a decimal number into an octal number is the repeated division by 8 method used.
For example Convert the given decimal number into octal number (266)10 = (?)8
thus, (266)10 = (412)8
(b) Fractional part
the fractional part of a decimal number can be converted to its octal equivalent by using the repeated multiplication method.
For example
(0.256)10 = (?)8
Step 1. 0.256 x 8 = 2.048
0.048 x 8 = 0.384
0.384 x 8 = 3.072
0.072 x 8 = 0.576
0.576 x 8 = 4.608
(0.256)10 = (0.20304)8
Octal to Binary conversion
An octal number is also known as a 3 bit binary number because each digit of an octal number is represented by three binary digits. each octal digit is represented by three bits as indicated
Octal digit Binary
0 000
1 001
2 010
3 011
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111
To convert an octal number to a binary number simply replace each octal difit by appropriate three bits.
For example
(a) (452)8 = (?)2
4 = 100
5 = 101
2 = 010
(452)8 = (100 101 010)2
(b) ( 37.12)8 = (?)2
3 7 . 1 2
011 111 . 001 010
(37.12)10 = (011 111 .001 010)2
Binary to Octal conversion
(a) Integer part
the integer binary numbers can be converted into octal equivalent by making groups of three bits starting from LSB and moving towards MSB.
For example 100 011 110 = 100 011 110
4 3 6
= (436)8
(b) Fractional part
the fractional binary number can be converted into their equivalent octal numbers by making group of three bits starting from MSB and moving towards LSB.
For example 0.010 101 100 = 0.010 101 100
2 5 4
(0.010 101 100)2 = (0.254)8
Hexadecimal Numbers
The hexadecimal number system has a base of sixteen i.e., it is composed of 16 digits and characters.
Ten digits and six alphabetic characters make up this number system. A subscript 16 indicates a hexadecimal number.
Binary to hexadecimal conversion
Break the binary number into four bits group starting at the binary point and replace each group by the equivalent hexadecimal symbol.
For example
(a) 1110 1010 0100
E A 4
(1110 1010 0100)2 = (EA4)16
(b) (111100110101011011)2 = (?)16
0 0 11 1100 1101 0101 1011 = (3CD5B)16
3 C D 5 B
Adding zeros
(c) (11011.111)2 = (?)16
0011 0011 1110 = (33.E)16
3 3 E
Adding two zeros
Hexadecimal to Binary conversion
Replace each hexadecimal symbol with the appropriate four bit.
For example
(a) 1 0 A E
0001 0000 1010 1110
(10AE)16 = (0001000010101110)2
(b) 0 2 3 5
0010 0011 0101
(0.235)16 = (0.001000110101)2
(c) F 2 D 8 A 1
1111 0010 1101 1000 1010 0001
(F2D . 8A1)16 = (111100101101.100010100001)2
Hexadecimal to decimal conversion
By multiplying each hexadecimal digit by its weight and then taking the sum of these products.
For example
(a) (321)16 = (?)10
(321)16 = 1 x 160 + 2 x 161 + 3 x 162
= 1 + 32 + 768 = 801
= (801)10
(b) (0.11)16 = (?)10
(0.11)16 = 0.00390 + 0.0625
= (0.06640625)10
(c) (A00.01)16 = (?)10
(A00.01)16 = (2560.00390)10
Decimal to-hexadecimal conversion
Repeated division of a decimal number by 16 will produce the equivalent hexadecimal number formed by the remainders of each division.
For example
(a) (498)10 = (?)16
(498)10 = (1F2)16
(b) (0.210)10 = (?)16
0.210 x 16 = 3.36 decimal hex
3 3 MSB
0.36 x 16 = 5.76
5 5
0.76 x 16 = 12.16
12 C
0.16 x 16 = 2.56
2 2
0.56 x 16 = 8.96
8 8
0.96 x 16 = 15.36
15 F LSB
(0.210)10 = (35C28F)16